The electric power industry in Japan covers the generation, transmission, distribution, and sale of electric energy in Japan. Japan consumed approximately 918 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity in 2014.[1]Before the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, about a quarter of electricity in the country was generated by nuclear power the following years, most nuclear power plants have been on hold, being replaced mostly by coal and natural gas.Solar power is a growing source of electricity, and Japan has the third largest solar installed capacity with about 50 GW as of 2017. Japan''s electricity production is characterized by a diverse energy mix, including nuclear, fossil fuels, renewable energy, and hydroelectric power.
Japan has the second largest pumped-hydro storage installed capacity in the world after China.[citation needed]
The electrical grid in Japan is isolated, with no international connections, and consists of four wide area synchronous grids. Unusually the Eastern and Western grids run at different frequencies (50 and 60 Hz respectively) and are connected by HVDC connections. This considerably limits the amount of electricity that can be transmitted between the north and south of the country.
In 2008, Japan consumed an average of 8507 kWh/person of electricity. That was 115% of the EU15 average of 7409 kWh/person and 95% of the OECD average of 8991 kWh/person.[2]
Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive.[3]
Since the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and the subsequent large scale shutdown on the nuclear power industry, Japan''s ten regional electricity operators have been making very large financial losses, larger than US$15 billion in both 2012 and 2013.[4]
In 2020 transmission and distribution infrastructure access will be made more open, which will help competitive suppliers cut costs.[8]
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Electricity transmission in Japan is unusual because the country is divided for historical reasons into two regions each running at a different mains frequency.[10] Eastern Japan has 50 Hz networks while western Japan has 60 Hz networks.[10][11] Limitations of conversion capacity causes a bottleneck to transfer electricity and shift imbalances between the networks.[10][11]
Eastern Japan (consisting of Hokkaido, Tohoku, Kanto, and eastern parts of Chubu) runs at 50 Hz; Western Japan (including most of Chubu, Kansai, Chugoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu) runs at 60 Hz.[10][12] That originates from the first purchases of generators from AEG for Tokyo in 1895 and from General Electric for Osaka in 1896.[13][14]
The frequency difference partitions Japan''s national grid and so power can be moved only between the two parts of the grid using frequency converters, or HVDC transmission lines. The boundary between the two regions has four back-to-back HVDC substations, which convert the frequency: Shin Shinano, Sakuma Dam, Minami-Fukumitsu, and the Higashi-Shimizu Frequency Converter.[citation needed] The total transmission capacity between the two grids is 1.2 GW.[15]
The limitations of these links have been a major problem in providing power to the areas of Japan affected by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.[13] During the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, there were blackouts in some areas of the country because of the insufficient ability of the three HVDC converter stations to transfer energy between both networks.[12]
According to the International Energy Agency, Japanese gross production of electricity was 1,041 TWh in 2009, making it the world''s third largest producer of electricity with 5.2% of the world''s electricity.[24][25] After Fukushima, Japan imported an additional 10 million short tons of coal and liquefied natural gas imports rose 24% between 2010 and 2012. In 2012 Japan used most of its natural gas (64%) in the power sector.[26]
Nuclear power was a national strategic priority in Japan. Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accidents, the national nuclear strategy is in doubt due to increasing public opposition to nuclear power. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, reported that "public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima disaster, and it calls for a reduction in the nation''s reliance on nuclear power.[29]
Following the 2011 accident, many reactors were shut down for inspection and for upgrades to more stringent safety standards. By October 2011, only 11 nuclear power plants were operating in Japan,[30][31][32] and all 50 nuclear reactors were offline by 15 September 2013. That left Japan without nuclear energy for only the second time in almost 50 years.[33] Carbon dioxide emissions from the electricity industry rose in 2012, reaching levels 39% more than when the reactors were in operation.[34]
Sendai 1 reactor was restarted on 11 August 2015, the first reactor to meet new safety standards and be restarted after the shutdown.[35] As of July 2018, there are nine reactors that have been restarted.[36]
Hydroelectricity is Japan''s main renewable energy source, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW, or 16% of the total generation capacity, of which about half is pumped-storage. The production was 73 TWh in 2010.[37]As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan''s total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams.
Benjamin K. Sovacool estimated that Japan has a total of "324 GW of achievable potential in the form of onshore and offshore wind turbines (222 GW), geothermal power plants (70 GW), additional hydroelectric capacity (26.5 GW), solar energy (4.8 GW) and agricultural residue (1.1 GW)."[38]
In 2011 Japan planned to build as many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020.[42] In 2020, seven years after the world''s first pilot floating wind turbine was installed off Fukushima in 2013, the Japanese government announced its withdrawal from the offshore wind farm.[43]
Japan relies mostly on pumped storage hydroelectricity to balance demand and supply. As of 2014, Japan has the largest pumped storage capacity in the world, with over 27 GW.[44]
Japan is a major consumer of energy, ranking fifth in the world by primary energy use. Fossil fuels accounted for 88% of Japan''s primary energy in 2019.[1][2] Japan imports most of its energy due to scarce domestic resources. As of 2022, the country imports 97% of its oil and is the larger liquefied natural gas (LNG) importer globally.[3]
Japan is increasing its reliance on renewable energy to replace imported fossil fuels, and in 2019 renewable energy accounted for 7.8% of primary energy supply. Japan has committed to reaching net zero emissions by 2050, setting a target to reduce GHG emissions by 46% from 2013 levels by 2030.[4]
Japan initiated its first commercial nuclear power reactor in 1966, establishing nuclear energy as a strategic national priority from 1973 onwards. Following the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011, this strategy underwent re-evaluation but was ultimately upheld. Prior to the accident, nuclear reactors contributed about 30% of Japan''s electricity, with the country now aiming for nuclear energy to account for at least 20% of its electricity production by 2030.[5] The Fukushima accident also lead to a 16% reduction in total primary energy supply (TPES) from 2010 to 2019.
2012R = CO2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated
Japan''s rapid industrial growth since the end of World War II doubled the nation''s energy consumption every five years into the 1990s. During the 1960–72 period of accelerated growth, energy consumption grew much faster than GNP, doubling Japan''s consumption of world energy. By 1976, with only 3% of the world''s population, Japan was consuming 6% of global energy supplies.
Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive,[8] and, since the loss of nuclear power after the earthquake and tsunami disaster at Fukushima, the cost of electricity has risen significantly.[9]
In 1950, coal supplied half of Japan''s energy needs, hydroelectricity one-third, and oil the rest. By 2001, the contribution of oil had increased to 50.2% of the total, with rises also in the use of nuclear power and natural gas. Japan now depends heavily on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy demand.[10]
In the wake of the two oil crises of the 1970s (1973 and 1979), Japan made efforts to diversify energy resources in order to increase energy security. Japan''s domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around 5.1 million barrels (810,000 m3) of oil per day in the late 1980s to 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) per day in 1990. While the country''s use of oil declined, its use of nuclear power and natural gas rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, for example electric power companies and steelmakers, switched from petroleum to coal, most of which is imported. Japan''s proved oil reserves total an estimated 44 million barrels.[13]
The state stockpile equals about 92 days of consumption and the privately held stockpiles equal another 77 days of consumption for a total of 169 days or 579 million barrels (92,100,000 m3).[14][15] The Japanese SPR is run by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation.[16] Japan was the fifth-largest oil consumer and fourth-largest crude oil importer in the world in 2019.[17]
In 2022, Japan''s crude oil imports rose to 2.5 million barrels per day (b/d), an increase from 2.3 million b/d in 2021, despite a decade-long trend of declining imports, which are now almost 0.9 million b/d less than the 2013 levels. The Middle East remained the predominant source, accounting for 93% of imports. Concurrently, Japan''s crude oil acquisitions from Russia declined to 1% of the total, a decrease from 4% in the preceding year, in the aftermath of Russia''s invasion of Ukraine.[3]
Japan ranked as the world''s largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG).[17]
Because domestic natural gas production is minimal, rising demand is met by greater imports. Japan''s main LNG suppliers in 2016 were Australia (27%), Malaysia (18%), Qatar (15%), Russia (9%), and Indonesia (8%).[23] In 1987, suppliers were Indonesia (51.3%), Malaysia (20.4%), Brunei (17.8%), United Arab Emirates (7.3%), and the United States (3.2%). In 2017, Japan consumed 4.7 quadrillion Btu (1377 TWh) of imported methane.[12]
The new Japanese LNG strategy published in May 2016 envisages the creation of a liquid market and an international LNG hub in Japan. This promises to radically change the traditional JCC (crude oil) based pricing system in Japan, but also potentially in the Pacific Basin as a whole. But the path to hub creation and hub pricing in the early 2020s envisaged by the Strategy will not be straightforward.[25]
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