The rise of V2G technology necessitates innovative business models to facilitate consumer adoption. A prime example is Octopus Energy''s, from the UK, Vehicle-to-Grid bundle called Powerloop. This bundle includes a new Nissan LEAF 40 kWh, a Wallbox charger, an App, 100% renewable energy, a Smart meter, and offers £30 cashback every month for £235/month. The package runs on a 4-year contract. Importantly, Powerloop is only available in areas where the local energy grid is managed by UK Power Networks [19].
This study investigates the effects of 10% of the total vehicle population in Trinidad and Tobago, approximately 10,000 vehicles being BEV''s and connecting to the electricity grid to charge. Three scenarios are investigated: a scenario that represents non-incentivized charging or business-as-usual, a charging at work scenario and a V2G program. A Nissan leaf is used as the representative BEV for this study and a V2G program with a generous tariff and a battery degradation payment is proposed.
This study is aimed at investigating the effects of ten percent of the total registered vehicle population being electric and the effect of these vehicles connecting and charging on the local electricity grid. Ten percent of the total number of vehicles registered locally is 10,000 vehicles and, in this study, the total population of BEV is modelled as 10,000 BEVs [22]. The study also presents realistic and relevant mitigation strategies to manage any adverse effects on the power grid. Three charging scenarios are developed and explored, un-incentivized BEV charging, BEV charging at work and the implementation of a vehicle-to-grid program.
The existing daily electrical demand curve for Trinidad and Tobago is presented in Fig. 2. The peak demand occurs at 7 pm and is 1250 MW, the second highest peak demand occurs at 8 pm and 1200 MW. There is also a daytime peak of 1180 MW that occurs at 1 pm. Power at these peak periods is provided by inefficient simple cycle natural gas turbines that produce the most carbon emissions per kWh or unit of energy produced.
Three scenarios were investigated: non-incentivized charging, incentivized charging, and a vehicle-to-grid program. A custom MATLAB simulation model was developed to evaluate the scenarios that used MATLAB and its various Simulink toolboxes.
The results of the scenarios are presented in this section.
This scenario investigates the use of a Vehicle to Grid (V2G) program to reduce the peak demand associated with BEV charging in the business-as-usual scenario, Scenario 1. To participate in the V2G program, BEV owners must have a V2G enable level 2 charger. Level 1 chargers are unable to participate in the V2G program because they don''t allow for DC charging and the use of CCS and CHAdeMO connectors that enable the V2G capability. In Scenario 1, 60% of the BEV users charge using a level 2 charger. For the V2G Scenario, it is assumed that half of the BEV users with a level 2 charger, have a V2G enabled level 2 charger and participate in the V2G program. The V2G program is as follows:
Fig. 5 presents the results of the simulation for the V2G program. The V2G program reduces all the peak demand due to BEV charging and maintains the existing peak demand without BEV charging on the grid. The V2G program delays charging till after 9 pm, this causes a greater power demand between the off-peak period from 12 am to 3 am. Moving electrical load to the off-peak period will ensure efficient utilization of the combined cycle powerplant as it would be operating closer to its rated capacity and not at a lower inefficient capacity.
To encourage BEV users to participate in a V2G scheme, a lucrative tariff scheme and compensation for battery degradation should be provided. An electricity tariff that is four (4) times the existing domestic electricity tariff and a daily battery degradation fee of $2.50 USD is proposed for each BEV user participating in the V2G program.
The V2G program would cost the utility $20,100 USD daily for 54 MWh of energy during the peak time or $372.2 USD/MWh. The Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) for a utility-scale 100 MW, 1-hour lithium-ion battery bank in 2023 is between $249 and $323 USD. The V2G program is 12% more expensive per MWh than the higher-end LCOS per MWh. The advantage of the V2G program is that the utility is not required to make any capital investment in utility-scale battery storage and its associated electrical infrastructure. The V2G program also allows for energy to be injected into the grid at distributed locations compared to one location, as is the case for a large utility-scale battery bank.
At an electricity tariff that is four times the existing domestic tariff a BEV owner participating in the V2G program gains $3.6 USD daily from the tariff and pays $1.5 USD daily to fully recharge the BEV using the grid. The BEV user has a net profit of $2.1 USD from the tariff and gains an additional $2.50 USD daily as a battery degradation fee. The cost of a new 30 kWh Nissan leaf battery can cost around $4500 USD [27]. At the current V2G battery degradation payment rate a Nissan leaf participant can change to a new battery in 5 years by using the battery degradation fee.
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for a natural gas peaking powerplant in 2023 is $221 USD/MWh [28]. The V2G program is 68% more costly than the LCOE for a natural gas peaker powerplant. The emissions associated with a simple cycle natural gas peaker powerplant is between 0.57 to 0.75 kg CO2-eq/MWh [29]. The natural gas peaker powerplant would produce between 30.78 kg CO2-eq and 40.5 kg CO2-eq daily without the V2G program. The emissions per kg of CO2-eq for a combined cycle power plant is between 0.42 to 0.48 kg CO2-eq/MWh. Assuming the electricity used to charge the BEVs outside of the V2G program is from the combined cycle powerplant, then there would be an emissions savings of between 8.1 kg CO2-eq and 14.58 kg CO2-eq daily.
The comparative analysis of the three BEV charging scenarios—non-incentivized charging, charging at work, and the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) program—reveals distinct impacts on Trinidad and Tobago''s grid efficiency, cost, and environmental sustainability.
The non-incentivized charging scenario results in increased peak demand, particularly during evening hours, which necessitates the use of less efficient and more polluting single-cycle gas turbines. Conversely, the charging at work scenario partially mitigates peak demand by distributing charging throughout the workday. However, this scenario''s impact is limited by the incomplete charging cycles of vehicles, necessitating additional charging during peak residential hours, thus only modestly alleviating grid stress.
The V2G scenario demonstrates a superior management of energy demand. By enabling electric vehicles to discharge energy back to the grid during peak times, V2G effectively transforms vehicles into mobile energy storage units. This not only stabilizes the grid during high-demand periods but can also optimize the use of renewable energy by absorbing excess generation during off-peak hours and releasing energy during peak demand.
Economically, non-incentivized charging does not incur additional costs beyond the existing infrastructure but fails to address the inefficiencies and potential costs associated with increased peak demand. The charging-at-work scenario might require a minimal initial investment in charging infrastructure at workplaces but does not significantly alter overall energy consumption patterns.
In contrast, the V2G scenario, while more expensive per MWh compared to other storage technologies, offers significant long-term benefits by reducing the need for investment in additional grid infrastructure and utility-scale storage solutions. The decentralized nature of V2G also means that energy generation and storage are more resilient to localized disruptions, adding an additional layer of security to the energy system.
From an environmental perspective, the non-incentivized scenario exacerbates emissions due to the increased use of inefficient power generation during peak times. While the work charging scenario does shift some demand to times when renewable energy might be more available, its overall impact on emissions is limited.
The V2G scenario offers the most substantial environmental benefits by significantly reducing peak demand and allowing for more efficient use of renewable energy sources. By using BEVs as temporary energy storage devices, V2G can decrease reliance on fossil fuel-based power generation during peak times, thereby reducing the carbon footprint of the energy sector.
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