This paper reviews practical challenges for microgrid electrification projects in low- and middle-income economies, proposing a Social-Technical-Economic-Political (STEP) framework. With our STEP framework, we review recent Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods capable of accelerating microgrid adopt Contact online >>
This paper reviews practical challenges for microgrid electrification projects in low- and middle-income economies, proposing a Social-Technical-Economic-Political (STEP) framework. With our STEP framework, we review recent Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods capable of accelerating microgrid adoption in developing economies.
Many authors have employed novel AI methods in microgrid applications including to support energy management systems, fault detection, generation sizing, and load forecasting. Despite these research initiatives, limited works have investigated the specific challenges for developing economies. That is, high-income countries often have high-quality power, reliable wireless communication infrastructure, and greater access to equipment and technical skills. Accordingly, there are numerous opportunities for the adaptation of AI methods to meet the constraints of developing economies.
In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the electrification challenges in developing economies alongside an assessment of novel AI approaches for microgrid applications. We also identify emerging opportunities for AI research in the context of developing economies and our proposed STEP framework.
Affordable and high-quality electricity is essential for the advancement of modern economies. Developing economies, especially those with large rural populations, face significant challenges in achieving sustainable economic and social development due to inadequate electricity access [1]. According to the International Energy Agency, around 775 million people worldwide lack access to electricity, while 75 million more may lose access due to energy affordability [2]. Africa accounts for nearly 600 million of those without electricity, with the majority of the remaining population residing in regions of Asia.
This paper aims to holistically examine AI solutions and their integration within emerging economies, bridging the gap between academic scholarship and real-world contexts. To our knowledge, this paper represents the first such type of review with the analysis of AI applications in microgrids with a specific focus on the limitations inherent in low- and middle-income countries. The chief objectives of this review are
To provide insights into the social, technical, economic, and political (STEP) rural electrification challenges unique to developing economies,
To review the application of AI in the context of microgrids in developing economies, and
To propose future research directions and potential AI advancements in microgrids located in low- and middle-income countries.
Access to electricity in African countries as a percentage of the total population [19]
Access to electricity has been associated with numerous developmental and welfare benefits, such as increased economic opportunities, better quality of life, improved health, and greater educational attainment [20,21,22]. Renewable energy electrification in regions without electricity can yield additional social benefits. Electrification could introduce awareness and opportunities for refrigeration, proper lighting, and electrical based clean cooking, which can all improve the quality of life [23,24,25].
Mapping the challenges for electrification in developing economies: interplay of social, technical, economic, and political elements
In efforts to improve both reliability and electricity access, microgrids are often suggested as an innovative and cost-effective solution [29]. A microgrid is a localized grouping of electricity generators and electrical loads capable of operating independently of the centralized grid. Depending upon the connection with the main grid structure, microgrids can take on two forms—grid-connected or islanded (standalone) [30].
A grid-connected microgrid aims to enhance reliability, reduce transmission demands, and provide an alternative power source during instances of large-scale outages by disconnecting autonomously from the main grid structure. On the other end of the spectrum is the islanded microgrid, which are self-sustaining, standalone entities supplying electricity without any connection to the main grid. Islanded microgrids are especially relevant in the context of rural electrification of regions already devoid of grid power.
With the aim of achieving universal energy access by the year 2030, solar-based microgrids have received significant interest from governments and organizations worldwide, with the United Nations suggesting their implementation as an important part of achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 7 [13]. Recent reports by the International Energy Agency have supported this agenda with estimations that more than 490 million individuals are expected to benefit from over 217,000 microgrids by 2030 [31]. With the ambitious goals set forth by international organizations and governments worldwide, understanding the social, technical, economic, and political barriers in developing economies is paramount to effective microgrid implementation.
The drive to extend electricity services to rural regions in developing economies has been a longstanding initiative by the UN, the World Bank, non-profit organizations, and governments worldwide [13, 19, 32]. Despite the significant interest in electrification, electrification rates have progressed slowly, with many projects failing due to social, technical, economic, or political challenges that were not adequately addressed [33, 34].
In this section, we examine and identify four key pillars reflecting challenges in developing economies. It is important to keep in mind that these pillars are often heavily codependent and can be segmented into a variety of subsequent challenges. The categories, as represented in Fig. 2, are social, technical, economic, and political (STEP). Through an understanding of the STEP challenges, we provide a foundation for identifying and implementing effective strategies for accelerating electricity access in remote regions.
The success of an electrification project often hinges on the involvement of all stakeholders from the outset—from local communities to developers and governmental organizations [7••, 35]. Cultural and behavioral differences oftentimes serve as barriers to electrification as they may incur significant societal and cultural change [36].
Contrary to the general optimism around renewable energy''s role in facilitating electricity accessibility, awareness lags significantly. For example, in Nigeria, nearly 40% of the population is unaware of the potential for solar photovoltaic systems [40]. Focusing on grassroots-level education, targeting women (often traditionally in charge of household energy management) can enable a smoother transition to modern energy systems [41].
Interestingly, despite being traditionally associated with the fossil fuel industry, forms of corruption have migrated to the realm of renewable energy as well [50]. Subsidized renewable energy schemes are becoming avenues for rent-seeking, leading to problems often ignored due to the sector''s relative novelty [54, 55]. An example of these areas of corruption, as presented by community members from a month-and-a-half field survey in Africa, are some models that corruption impacts energy projects and day-to-day life.
Model 1: Large Scale Contracts Organization A secures significant funding, potentially government or externally sourced, for the execution of an energy solution. The responsibility falls on Organization A to appoint subcontractors for the execution of the project. In lieu of awarding contracts to the most fitting companies, preferential treatment is often extended to close acquaintances or those who suggest a financial gain to the part of Organization A in charge of contract assignments. In turn, companies that are operating in the best interest of the people may be neglected unless they can promise some economic or political advantage or tie.
Model 2: Inter-Contract The second model entails Organization B receiving a contract from Organization A for connecting a specific number of people to the power grid. Organization B provides an accurate quote to Organization A for the installment cost but installs at half of what was expected or with cheaper components. The leftover hardware is then resold to other contractors or, in some cases, back to Organization B. This can lead to early equipment failure, potentially harmful conditions, and often, the requirement for the work to be redone.
Model 3: Low-Level Corruption The third type of corruption, recognized as the most prevalent by community members, can best be illustrated through unequal power quality. In this situation, political leaders or people with economic influence receive higher quality electricity, with any power disturbance being attended to promptly. In some situations, service companies accept bribes and favors as a way to ensure that power remains reliable to the person in power.
An electricity service worker fixing a frequent power outage due to overcrowding of electricity wires in Kampala, Uganda
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