This study provides an overview of the recent research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, is becoming increasingly important to address the growing energy demand and mitigate the impact of climate change. Hence, the development of materials with superior properties, such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability, can significantly enhance the performance of solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. This review discusses recent progress in the field of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The challenges and opportunities associated with these materials are also explored, including scalability, stability, and economic feasibility.
Each technology harvests sunlight rays and converts them into different end forms. For instance, solar energy can be naturally converted into solar fuel through the process of photosynthesis. Also, through photosynthesis, plants store energy from the sun, where protons and electrons are produced, which can be further metabolized to produce H2 and CH4. Thus, 11% of solar energy is utilized in the natural photosynthesis of biomass [8]. Photovoltaics convert photons into electrons to get electrical energy, while in solar thermal applications, the photons are absorbed and their energy is converted into tangible heat [9]. This heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be directly collected and used for space and water heating [10].
However, the energy converted may be too low for consumption, and production efficiency can be improved by producing fuel from water and carbon dioxide through artificial bio-inspired nanoscale assemblies, connecting natural photosynthetic pathways in novel configurations, and using genetic engineering to facilitate biomass production [11]. One of the major challenges for photovoltaic (PV) systems remains matching intermittent energy production with dynamic power demand [12, 13]. A solution to this challenge is to add a storage element to these intermittent power sources [14, 15].
Solar energy is used in two different ways: one through the solar thermal route using solar collectors, heaters, dryers, etc., and the other through the solar electricity route using SPV, as shown in Fig. 1. A SPV system consists of arrays and combinations of PV panels, a charge controller for direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC); (DC to DC), a DC-to-AC inverter, a power meter, a breaker, and a battery or an array of batteries depending on the size of the system [22, 23].
Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic systems
Solar photovoltaic materials shown in Fig. 3, when exposed to light, absorb the light and transform the energy of the light photons into electrical energy. Commercially available photovoltaic systems are based on inorganic materials, which require costly and energy-intensive processing techniques.
Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic materials
Schematic diagram of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC)
The N3 dye was reported to be stable as a pure solid in the air up to 280 °C, where decarboxylation occurs. It lasts 108 redox cycles under long-term light with no obvious loss of function. Metal oxides, such as TiO2, SnO2, ZnO2, In2O3, CeO3, and NbO3, have been employed as photoanodes to investigate materials for effective photoanodes [57]. Hence, the breakthrough in DSC was the use of a high-surface-area nanoporous TiO2 layer, and the outstanding stability is the very rapid deactivation of its excited state via charge injection into the TiO2, which occurs in the femtosecond time domain [58].
A conducting polymer such as pyrrole was electrochemically polymerized on a porous nanocrystalline TiO2 electrode, which was sensitized by N3 dye. Polypyrrole successfully worked as a whole transport layer, connecting dye molecules anchored on TiO2 to the counter electrode. Conducting polyaniline has also been used in solid-state solar cells sensitized with methylene blue.
Wear rate of the carbon nanotube composites
Solar photovoltaic materials and their efficiencies
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