The specific energy of LFP batteries is lower than that of other common lithium-ion battery types such as nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA). As of 2024, the specific energy of CATL''s LFP battery is currently 205 watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) on the cell level.[13] BYD''s LFP battery specific energy is 150 Wh/kg. The best NMC batteries exhibit specific energy values of over 300 Wh/kg. Notably, the specific energy of Panasonic''s "2170" NCA batteries used in Tesla''s 2020 Model 3 mid-size sedan is around 260 Wh/kg, which is 70% of its "pure chemicals" value. LFP batteries also exhibit a lower operating voltage than other lithium-ion battery types.
Negative electrodes (anode, on discharge) made of petroleum coke were used in early lithium-ion batteries; later types used natural or synthetic graphite.[26]
The LFP battery uses a lithium-ion-derived chemistry and shares many advantages and disadvantages with other lithium-ion battery chemistries. However, there are significant differences.
Iron and phosphates are very common in the Earth''s crust. LFP contains neither nickel[33] nor cobalt, both of which are supply-constrained and expensive. As with lithium, human rights[34] and environmental[35] concerns have been raised concerning the use of cobalt. Environmental concerns have also been raised regarding the extraction of nickel.[36]
A 2020 report published by the Department of Energy compared the costs of large scale energy storage systems built with LFP vs NMC. It found that the cost per kWh of LFP batteries was about 6% less than NMC, and it projected that the LFP cells would last about 67% longer (more cycles). Because of differences between the cell''s characteristics, the cost of some other components of the storage system would be somewhat higher for LFP, but in balance it still remains less costly per kWh than NMC.[37]
In 2020, the lowest reported LFP cell prices were $80/kWh (12.5 Wh/$) with an average price of $137/kWh,[38] while in 2023 the average price had dropped to $100/kWh.[39]By early 2024, VDA-sized LFP cells were available for less than RMB 0.5/Wh ($70/kWh), while Chinese automaker Leapmotor stated it buys LFP cells at RMB 0.4/Wh ($56/kWh) and believe they could drop to RMB 0.32/Wh ($44/kWh).[40] By mid 2024, assembled LFP batteries were available to consumers in the US for around $115/kWh.[41]
LFP chemistry offers a considerably longer cycle life than other lithium-ion chemistries. Under most conditions it supports more than 3,000 cycles, and under optimal conditions it supports more than 10,000 cycles. NMC batteries support about 1,000 to 2,300 cycles, depending on conditions.[6]
LFP cells experience a slower rate of capacity loss (a.k.a. greater calendar-life) than lithium-ion battery chemistries such as cobalt (LiCoO2) or manganese spinel (LiMn2O4) lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo battery) or lithium-ion batteries.[42]
The energy density (energy/volume) of a new LFP battery as of 2008 was some 14% lower than that of a new LiCoO2 battery.[45] Since discharge rate is a percentage of battery capacity, a higher rate can be achieved by using a larger battery (more ampere hours) if low-current batteries must be used.
Higher discharge rates needed for acceleration, lower weight and longer life makes this battery type ideal for forklifts, bicycles and electric cars. Twelve-volt LiFePO4 batteries are also gaining popularity as a second (house) battery for a caravan, motor-home or boat.[49]
Tesla Motors uses LFP batteries in all standard-range Models 3 and Y made after October 2021[50] except for standard-range vehicles made with 4680 cells starting in 2022, which use an NMC chemistry.[51]
As of September 2022, LFP batteries had increased its market share of the entire EV battery market to 31%. Of those, 68% were deployed by two companies, Tesla and BYD.[52]
Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024.[53]
In February 2023, Ford announced that it will be investing $3.5 billion to build a factory in Michigan that will produce low-cost batteries for some of its electric vehicles. The project will be fully owned by a Ford subsidiary, but will use technology licensed from Chinese battery company Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL).[54]
Single "14500" (AA battery–sized) LFP cells are now used in some solar-powered landscape lighting instead of 1.2 V NiCd/NiMH.[citation needed]
LFP''s higher (compared to NiMH/NiCd) 3.2 V working voltage lets a single cell drive an LED without circuitry to step up the voltage. Its increased tolerance to modest overcharging (compared to other Li cell types) means that LiFePO4 can be connected to photovoltaic cells without circuitry to halt the recharge cycle.
By 2013, better solar-charged passive infrared motion detector security lamps emerged.[55] As AA-sized LFP cells have a capacity of only 600 mAh (while the lamp''s bright LED may draw 60 mA), the units shine for at most 10 hours. However, if triggering is only occasional, such units may be satisfactory even charging in low sunlight, as lamp electronics ensure after-dark "idle" currents of under 1 mA.[citation needed]
Some electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries. Other applications include marine electrical systems[56] and propulsion, flashlights, radio-controlled models, portable motor-driven equipment, amateur radio equipment, industrial sensor systems[57] and emergency lighting.[58]
A recent modification is to replace the potentially unstable separator with a more stable material.[59] Recent discoveries found that LiFePO4 and to an extent Li-ion can degrade due to heat, when test cells were taken apart a brick red compound had formed that when analyzed suggesting that molecular breakdown of the previously believed stable separator was a common failure mode. In this case, the side reactions gradually consume Li ions trapping them in stable compounds so they can''t be shuttled.Also three electrode batteries that permit external devices to detect internal shorts forming are a potential near term solution to the dendrite issue.
Researchers in the United Kingdom have analyzed lithium-ion battery thermal runaway off-gas and have found that nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) batteries generate larger specific off-gas volumes, while lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries are a greater flammability hazard and show greater toxicity, depending on relative state of charge (SOC).
Thermal runaway from initiation to propagation and resulting hazards
Image: Creative Commons CC BY 4.0
In the rare event of catastrophic failure, the off-gas from lithium-ion battery thermal runaway is known to be flammable and toxic, making it a serious safety concern. But while off-gas generation has been widely investigated, until now there has been no comprehensive review on the topic.
In a new paper, researchers from the University of Sheffield, Imperial College London, and the University of St Andrews in the United Kingdom have conducted a detailed meta-analysis of 60 papers to investigate the most influential battery parameters and the probable off-gas characteristics to determine what kind of battery would be least hazardous.
They have found that while NMC batteries release more gas than LFP, but that LFP batteries are significantly more toxic than NMC ones in absolute terms.
Toxicity varies with state of charge (SOC). Generally, a higher SOC leads to greater specific gas volume generation.
When comparing the previous findings for both chemistries, the researchers found that LFP is more toxic at lower SOC, while NMC is more toxic at higher SOC. Namely, while at higher SOC LFP is typically shown to produce less off-gas than other chemistries, at lower SOC volumes can be comparable between chemistries, but in some cases LFP can generate more.
Prismatic cells also tend to generate larger specific off-gas volumes than offer cell forms.
The composition of off-gas on average is very similar between NMC and LFP cells, but LFP batteries have greater hydrogen content, while NMC batteries have greater carbon monoxide content.
To assess the fire hazard of each chemistry, the researchers calculated and compared the lower flammability limit (LFL) of the off-gasses. They have found that LFL for LFP and NMC are 6.2% and 7.9% (in an inert atmosphere) respectively. Given the LFL and the median off-gas volumes produced, LFP cells breach the LFL in a volume 18% smaller than NMC batteries.
"Hence LFP presents a greater flammability hazard even though they show less occurrence of flames in cell thermal runaway tests," the researchers said.
They discussed their findings in “Review of gas emissions from lithium-ion battery thermal runaway failure – Considering toxic and flammable compounds,” which was recently published in the Journal of Energy Storage.
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