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From wind turbines to electric vehicles, rechargeable battery technology is key to a green future. Today, lithium-ion batteries can be found in everything from electric vehicles to the cell phone in your pocket.
These rechargeable batteries can store significantly more power than earlier battery technology. Drawing on minerals like cobalt, a by-product of copper, lithium-ion batteries are replacing fossil fuels in critical technology.
As demand for green energy grows, the spotlight shines brighter on where these materials come from and how they make their way into our electronics.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the main source of cobalt globally—in fact, over 70% of the world''s cobalt comes from mines in this country. Cobalt mining is centered in the "copper belt" region of Haut-Katanga and Lualaba Provinces, where the cobalt is also refined for export.
While some cobalt is mined at large-scale industrial mines, artisanal and small-scale mines are responsible for 15–30% of local production. Child labor is often found in these artisanal and small-scale mines, which are less regulated and rarely visited by labor inspectors.
Recognizing the prevalence of child labor in the mining of this mineral, in 2009 the Department of Labor placed cobalt ore from the DRC on its List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor. Over a decade later, child labor persists in cobalt production, raising risks for the entire lithium-ion battery supply chain.
Child labor, under international standards, means work (excluding permissible light work) below the minimum age as established under national legislation—usually 14 or 15 years old—as well as the worst forms of child labor which, for children under the age of 18, includes all forms of slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, illicit activities, and hazardous work that is likely to harm their health, safety, or morals.
Ziki Swazey was a child laborer in one of the DRC''s artisanal small-scale cobalt mines. As an 11-year-old, he had never seen the inside of a classroom, nor could he read or write. All he knew was mining. He worked in blistering heat under dangerous and exploitative labor conditions washing cobalt. Each evening, with hands weary from washing cobalt and a heart longing for education, he returned home with a mere dollar or two in his pocket to provide for his family and tend to his sick grandmother.
In early 2018, Ziki was able to leave the cobalt mine and enroll in school for the first time. But many of his peers still work in the mines. Often working in tight spaces underground without proper safety equipment or procedures, child laborers face serious risks of injury or death. They can fall into open mine shafts or they can be trapped or crushed by tunnel collapses. The DRC''s laws prohibit children under the age of 18 from working in mining. However, due to lack of enforcement of labor laws, widespread poverty, and a growing global demand for cobalt, children continue to work in dangerous conditions mining this critical mineral.
Children work at the very earliest stages of the rechargeable battery supply chain—a supply chain dominated by China, which imports nearly 90% of its cobalt from the DRC. Chinese firms own, operate, or finance most of the DRC''s cobalt mines. In the process of refining cobalt prior to export, cobalt from multiple sources is mixed together. When this happens, cobalt produced with child labor becomes impossible to distinguish from cobalt mined without child labor, tainting DRC''s cobalt exports with child labor.
In 2020, the Democratic Republic of the Congo exported $2.36 Billion in cobalt. Over 90% of the DRC''s cobalt was transported to China ($2.17 Billion in 2020), with most intended for "fine" refining and integration into battery chemicals, as shown in the graphic below.
After cobalt from the DRC is further refined, it is sent to factories to produce rechargeable battery chemicals and components. Eventually, these inputs end up in lithium-ion batteries produced in China.
Populations in the U.S. and around the world use Chinese-produced lithium-ion batteries, and by extension, increase demand for the cobalt that powers them. Nearly half of U.S. lithium-ion battery imports in 2020 came from China.
The transition to renewable energies has fed the growing demand for cobalt and other minerals. Strong government plans worldwide to limit or ban the sale of gas and diesel vehicles have led to multi-billion-dollar electric vehicle (EV)-related investment programs. It is estimated that the global EV fleet could exceed 200 million vehicles by 2030.
Our research shows that lithium-ion batteries are produced with an input—cobalt—made by child labor.
Government, private sector, and multistakeholder partnerships are working to improve conditions throughout the cobalt supply chain. The Government of the DRC has expanded oversight and control over the artisanal and small-scale mining sector, including in areas rich in copper and cobalt. In early 2021, the DRC announced the creation of the Entreprise Générale du Cobalt (EGC), which aims to formalize and regulate the artisanal and small-scale cobalt sector to meet increasing demand for cobalt as the world transitions toward green energy. In addition, the DRC''s Minister of Mines joined the Cobalt Action Partnership, a public-private initiative that promotes due diligence in the cobalt supply chain.
Focusing on the efforts of certain U.S. trade beneficiary countries and territories to eliminate the worst forms of child labor through legislation, enforcement mechanisms, policies and social programs.
Listing goods that ILAB has reason to believe are produced by child labor or forced labor, including, to the extent practicable, goods that are produced with inputs that are produced with forced labor or child labor.
Containing goods and their source countries that ILAB, along with the Department of Homeland Security and the Department of State, have reason to believe are made by forced or indentured child labor.
Sweat & Toil: Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking Around the World is a comprehensive resource developed by ILAB documenting child labor and forced labor worldwide. Data and research in this app are taken from ILAB''s three flagship reports. This app fits these three information-packed reports the size of a phone book in the palm of your hand.
To help mitigate child labor and forced labor risks, Comply Chain: Business Tools for Labor Compliance in Global Supply Chains, targets companies and industry groups seeking to develop robust social compliance systems for their global production. Comply Chain provides a practical, step-by-step guide on critical elements of social compliance and is designed for companies that do not have a social compliance system in place or those needing to strengthen their existing systems.
The Better Trade Tool empowers users to advance efforts in supply chain transparency as well as strategic sourcing priorities. This innovative tool integrates existing reporting developed by ILAB with U.S. import trade data, including Harmonized Tariff Schedule codes. The Better Trade Tool is intended to serve as a resource for users interested in learning about labor exploitation risks in global supply chains.
Check out the ILAB Knowledge Portal, a valuable tool for researchers, civil society organizations, other governments, and international organizations seeking to implement good practices in addressing child labor and forced labor worldwide. The portal makes grant-funded resources and evaluation report learnings publicly available and searchable online.
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